EXTRACT A
Memory is both a result of and an influence on perception, attention, and learning. The basic pattern of remembering consists of attention to an event followed by the representation of that event in the brain. Repeated attention, or practice, results in a cumulative effect on memory and enables activities such as a skilful performance on a musical instrument, the recitation of a poem, and reading and understanding words on a page. Learning could not occur without the function of memory. So-called intelligent behaviour demands memory, remembering being a prerequisite to reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a problem exists depends on memory. Routine action, such as the decision to cross a street, is based on remembering numerous earlier experiences. The act of remembering an experience and bringing it to consciousness at a later time requires an association, which is formed from the experience, and a “retrieval cue,” which elicits the memory of the experience.
In speculating about the evolution of memory, it is helpful to consider what would happen if memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time; since old memories, weaken and new ones tend to be vivid, clues are provided for inferring duration. Without forgetting, the adaptive ability would suffer; for example, learned behaviour that might have been correct a decade ago may no longer be appropriate or safe. Indeed, cases are recorded of people who (by ordinary standards) forget so little that their everyday activities are full of confusion. Thus, forgetting seems to serve the survival not only of the individual but of the entire human species.
EXTRACT B
One traditional technique for committing a list of items to memory involves imagining that one is travelling a familiar route in one’s town while stopping to place an image of each item at specific landmarks on the route. This technique, called the method of loci, was used by Greek orators such as Cicero and Simonides as a means of organizing and remembering points in their speeches.
The method of loci is based on the principle that encoding new information—such as items from the list to be memorized—to previously stored data—landmarks along a familiar route in one’s town—can be an effective means of improving memory function. When encoding techniques are formally applied, they are called mnemonic systems or devices. (The popular rhyme that begins “Thirty days hath September” is an example.) Verbal learning can be enhanced by an appropriate mnemonic system. Thus, paired associates (e.g., dog-chair) will be learned more rapidly if they are included in a simple sentence (e.g., The dog jumped over the chair). Imagery that can associate different words to be learned (even in a bizarre fashion) has been found beneficial. Indeed, some investigators hold that pure rote learning (in which no use is made of established memories except to directly perceive the stimuli) is rare or non-existent. They suggest that all learning elaborates on memories already available.
EXTRACT C
Repressed memories are memories that we unconsciously avoid thinking about, usually because of a traumatic experience. These memories are thought to be unconsciously blocked for several years and are recovered later, often from a trigger.
The concept of repressed memories was developed by the psychoanalytic scholar Sigmund Freud, who was influenced by the hypnotist Jean-Martin Charcot in the late 19th Century. Since then, the existence of repressed memories has become a highly controversial topic in psychology, and research shows that researchers and clinicians are still in debate.
Memory researchers argue that there is no substantial scientific evidence that repressed memories exist, whereas clinicians claim the opposite – this debate has been referred to as the “memory wars” by scholars. Each side of the debate has points backed by significant evidence, as a result, many neutral parties have taken the task of setting the records straight.
EXTRACT D
At unexpected points in life, everyone gets waylaid by the colossal force of recollection. One minute you're a grown woman, then a whiff of cumin conjures your dad's curry, and a whole door to the past blows open, ushering in uncanny detail. There are traumatic memories that rise up unbidden and dwarf you where you stand. But there are also memories you dig for: you start with a clear fix on a tiny instant and pick at every knot until a thin thread comes undone that you can follow back through the mind's labyrinth to other places. We've all interrogated ourselves. It couldn't have been Christmas because we had shorts on in the snapshot. Such memories start by being figured out, but the useful ones eventually gain enough traction to haul you through the past.
Memory is a pinball in a machine it messily ricochets around between images, ideas, fragments of scenes, stories you've heard. Then the machine goes tilt and snaps off. But most of the time, we keep memories packed away. I sometimes liken that moment of sudden unpacking to circus clowns pouring out of a miniature car trunk, how did so much fit into such a small space?